Encyclopaedia on India

  Kushinagara, an ancient city located in the present-day Kasia region of Uttar Pradesh, India, holds profound significance in the annals of Buddhist history. One of the sixteen countries of ancient India, it was a major centre of pilgrimage, particularly noted as the location where Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, attained Parinirvana—his final state of nirvana—after his earthly existence. This pivotal event marks Kushinagara as a revered site for both Mahayana and Theravada traditions, emphasizing its importance in the spiritual journeys of countless pilgrims. The significance of Kushinagara is underscored by its historical prominence as a capital of one of the two Malla republics. In literature, the city is referred to as Kusavati during the pre-Buddha period and subsequently as Kushinara in the post-Buddha phase. The rich tapestry of its legacy is evidenced by the Nirvana Temple, constructed in the 5th century AD, which houses a magnificent reclining statue of Buddha. This st...

  Sagala, now identified with the modern city of Sialkot in northern Punjab, Pakistan, has a rich historical heritage that dates back to ancient times. This city, known for its strategic location, served as a pivotal centre of trade and commerce during various historical epochs. The significance of Sagala is notably underscored by its mention in classical texts, where it is referred to as "Sagala or Euthydemia." Historically, Sagala held considerable prominence as the capital of the Indo-Hepthalite King Mihirakula, renowned for his expansionist policies. Furthermore, it is believed that this ancient settlement functioned as the capital of the Indo-Greek kingdom during the reign of King Menander I, who was the son of Demetrius. King Menander, famed for his philosophical dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena, famously featured Sagala in the Milinda Panha, thereby elevating its reputation as a hub of Buddhist thought and culture. Sagala's journey through history com...

The Kulatas, an ancient tribe referenced in texts like the Markandeya Purana and the Karna Parva of the Mahabharata, settled in what is now Kangra District, Himachal Pradesh. Known for its fertile soil and rich vegetation, the area was a hub of agricultural abundance, fostering the prosperity of its people. The Kulatas, along with tribes like the Kurutas and Malavas, established a thriving tribal republic, noted for its governance systems that predated many empires. The Kulatas are believed to have been predominantly Buddhists, with a significant emphasis on Mahayana Buddhism , though adherence to Hinayana traditions also existed. The region was home to numerous Buddhist monasteries, which housed over 1,000 monks, fostering a rich spiritual and cultural environment. The presence of various deva temples further exemplifies the religious diversity and prominence of spirituality in everyday life among the Kulatas. Historical records, including inscriptions and coins from the time, in...

The Suhmas, an ancient tribe, hold a significant place in the historical and cultural narratives of Jain literature and Indian epics. Their presence is predominantly recorded in the "Ayaranga-sutta," one of the oldest sacred texts of Jainism, which marks the first mention of the Suhma territory. This area, roughly correlating to the modern-day districts of undivided Midnapore and parts of Hooghly and Howrah in West Bengal, is depicted as a distinct land that contributes to our understanding of regional identities in ancient India. The realm of the Suhmas is notably referenced in the epic narratives of the Mahabharata. In particular, Bhima's conquests highlight the unique characteristics of the Suhma territory, differentiating it from neighbouring regions such as Vanga and Tamralipta. Suhma is identified as one of the Baleya Ksatras , alongside its brothers Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, and Pundra. This affiliation suggests a rich tapestry of interrelated cultures and polities t...

The Kekayas Tribe, notable for their historical and mythological significance, is referenced in ancient Indian texts such as the Shatapatha Brahmana and the Chandogya Upanishad. These texts indicate that the tribe had deep roots in the cultural and social fabric of early Indian civilization. Ethnically, the Kekayas are believed to have descended from the non-Aryan Anu tribe, and their narrative can be traced back to the Rig Veda, which locates them in the region of Punjab—a territory that they inhabited long before the rise of dominant Aryan influences. Rajasekhara, in his Kavyamimamsa, attributes the Kekaya country to the northern division of ancient India, known as Uttarapatha. The Kekayas are mentioned not only in the Ramayana but also in the epic Mahabharata, where they played a significant role during the renowned Kurukshetra war. Notably, the king of the Kekayas was Asvapati, a figure revered for his theological insights and teachings imparted to various Brahmanas. His presenc...

  The culinary practices of ancient India offer profound insights into the civilization's cultural evolution. Food, an essential aspect of life, reveals not only the preferences and resources of ancient societies but also social structures and religious beliefs. The rich tapestry of ancient Indian food habits can be traced through various periods, each marked by distinct practices and innovations. During the early phases of the Indus Valley Civilization, inhabitants consumed a diet enriched with fruits, wild berries, fish, and meat. As communities began to settle, agriculture took root, leading to the cultivation of staple crops such as rice and pulses in fertile river valleys. Rice emerged as a staple, complemented by lentils, vegetables, and occasionally meat. Wheat became vital too, facilitating the creation of flatbreads known as "roti" and leavened breads called "naan," enhancing the diversity of the diet. The Vedic period introduced stark contrasts in...

Indian music, deeply rooted in the country’s culture since ancient times, embodies spirituality, social events, and artistic expression. It features a wide array of traditional instruments, each holding unique cultural and historical significance. The Bansuri, a bamboo flute iconic in Indian music , is closely linked to Lord Krishna and pastoral themes. Known for its expressive tones, it seamlessly blends classical and folk traditions, evoking the rustic charm of India. Its versatility and emotional depth make it a cherished instrument in devotional music and folk songs. The Nagaswaram, a double-reed wind instrument from South India, is central to temple ceremonies, weddings, and religious festivities. Its powerful, resonant sound brings solemnity and celebration to these events, symbolizing tradition and cultural heritage in South Indian communities. The Gottuvadhyam, an ancient string instrument, is a cornerstone of Carnatic music. Its distinctive playing technique produces haunting...

  Wedding customs in ancient India presented a stark contrast to contemporary practices, reflecting the societal evolution spanning millennia. While the core concept of marriages as a socio-religious institution remained, the rituals, societal expectations, and individual agency underwent significant transformations. In the Vedic period, the earliest documented form of marriage, ceremonies were deeply rooted in religious texts and practices, primarily conducted along the river Saraswati. These Vedic marriages, with their intricate rituals, prioritized societal stability and lineage continuation. Evidence suggests that the Aryans, generally monogamous, acknowledged the existence of polygamy and polyandry, albeit potentially limited to certain social strata. Texts like the “ Manasollasa ” illustrate that while a king typically married a Kshatriya woman as his chief queen, he could also maintain other wives from Vaishya or Shudra backgrounds for pleasure, revealing a nuanced, if hie...

The Gupta Period, flourishing around 320 to 550 CE in India, was marked by significant advancements in culture, art, and science, including the realm of culinary practices. This era is illuminated by the literary works of noted playwrights such as Kalidasa, as well as texts like "Angavijja" and the "Bharata Samhita," which provide insights into the dietary habits of the time. The diet in the Gupta Empire was diverse, primarily characterized by both vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods. This variety was influenced by the prevailing religious beliefs, particularly Buddhism and Jainism, which promoted vegetarianism among their adherents. Cereals, vegetables, fruits, and dairy products formed the cornerstone of the Gupta diet, with regional variations based on local agriculture. Non-vegetarian foods, including meat and fish, were consumed depending on geographical location and individual practices. Significant culinary contributions during this period arose particular...